Article page checkbox is not checked in page info.
Industrial heritage in the EU
Industrial heritage in the EU
Alina-Alexandra Georgescu with Luca Ballico Members' Research Service
Summary
Europe is home to a myriad of industrial sites, many of which remain operational today. Whether actively in use or long abandoned, these sites stand as witnesses to the industrialisation that forged modern European and global societies. Industrial heritage represents a distinct category within cultural heritage, encompassing both movable and immovable, as well as tangible and intangible dimensions. Although definitions of industrial heritage are absent across EU institutions, UNESCO, and the Council of Europe, these stakeholders share a unified commitment to safeguarding it as a public good of enduring cultural, social, and economic value. The Dublin Principles act as a global roadmap for safeguarding historic industrial locations. Created in late 2011 through a partnership between the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage (TICCIH), these guidelines help experts identify, document, protect, and safeguard industrial heritage sites, structures, areas, and landscapes. The 2015 European Heritage Days were dedicated to the industrial heritage. The European Route of Industrial Heritage is the largest certified network of industrial heritage sites, recognising industrial history as a vital part of European identity. During the 2018 European Year of Cultural Heritage, industrial sites were highlighted as crucial pieces of Europe's shared identity. Industrial heritage remains a source of learning that demonstrates human inventive talent and scientific development. In addition, it is imprinted on the landscape and conserves the identity of a specific way of life. It is important for the meaning people give to it and the values it represents for the communities. Industrial heritage is now considered an essential component of a common European identity. The Culture Compass for Europe further advances this agenda by promoting stronger protection, wider accessibility, regional cooperation and a more sustainable approach to heritage governance. To provide a broader overview, this briefing examines prominent examples and instruments in the area of cultural heritage, including UNESCO's World Heritage List, the Europa Nostra Awards, the European Heritage Label and other key EU initiatives currently shaping this domain.
Definitions and actions of international organisations on industrial heritage
Industrial heritage reflects both the material traces of industrial activity and the human practices that gave it form and meaning. Industrial heritage is a particular category within cultural heritage, encompassing therefore both tangible and intangible dimensions. It includes not only former factories, transport systems, shipyards, machinery, and other physical remains of industrial production, and the objects it used and produced, but also the skills, know-how and traditions that emerged during the industrial period.
UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
UNESCO is the world's most famous organisation aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences, and culture, including cultural heritage. Its definition of cultural heritage dates back to its 1972 Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage (the World Heritage Convention), covering architectural works, sculptures, paintings, groups of buildings and sites comprised of the works of humans, or of humans and nature, of outstanding universal artistic, historic, scientific, or aesthetic value (Article 1). This World Heritage Convention serves as an important international instrument for protection of cultural heritage but does not mention industrial heritage directly.
After adopting the 1972 Convention, UNESCO drew up the World Heritage List, which includes outstanding heritage sites in need of protection. The EU hosts 35 % of these sites (437). The International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage (TICCIH) is the international organisation for industrial heritage, working to promote international cooperation in preserving, documenting and researching industrial heritage, and advancing education in this area. It is co-funded by the EU and acts as a consultant to the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), an international non-governmental organisation working for the conservation of monuments and sites around the world. ICOMOS also advises UNESCO on the inclusion of industrial properties on the World Heritage List. ICOMOS and TICCIH are both members of the European Heritage Alliance.
In 2011, ICOMOS and TICCIH together adopted the Principles for the Conservation of Industrial Heritage Sites, Structures, Areas and Landscapes (the Dublin Principles), providing a joint framework for the documentation, protection, and conservation of industrial sites and landscapes. According to these principles
the industrial heritage consists of sites, structures, complexes, areas and landscapes as well as the related machinery, objects or documents that provide evidence of past or ongoing industrial processes of production, the extraction of raw materials, their transformation into goods, and the related energy and transport infrastructures. Industrial heritage reflects the profound connection between the cultural and natural environment, as industrial processes – whether ancient or modern – depend on natural sources of raw materials, energy and transportation networks to produce and distribute products to broader markets. It includes both material assets – immovable and movable – and intangible dimensions such as technical know‐how, the organisation of work and workers, and the complex social and cultural legacy that shaped the life of communities and brought major organizational changes to entire societies and the world in general.
Council of Europe
The Council of Europe (CoE), with its 46 European member countries, focuses its action on human rights and the rule of law and democracy, with the latter including culture and cultural heritage as elements of democratic governance. In addition to the global standards set by UNESCO, the Council of Europe, in its 2005 Faro Framework Convention on the value of cultural heritage for society (the Faro Convention) defined cultural heritage as
a group of resources inherited from the past which people identify, independently of ownership, as a reflection and expression of their constantly evolving values, beliefs, knowledge and traditions. It includes all aspects of the environment resulting from the interaction between people and places through time (Article 2).
The convention also highlights the social and economic benefits of preserving cultural heritage as a prerequisite for sustainable development. It broadly defines the common European heritage as covering all forms of cultural heritage, viewing it as a shared source of remembrance, understanding and identity. Furthermore, it highlights the contribution of this heritage to creativity, social cohesion and ideals, principles and values derived from past conflicts and efforts toward progress. Finally, the convention underscores the link between cultural heritage and the development of a peaceful and stable society, founded on respect for human rights, the rule of law and democracy.
The CoE defines industrial heritage as a foundational element of a shared European identity, comprising both tangible and intangible components. It serves as a record of historical interaction, specifically illustrating the cross-border exchange of technological processes, professional expertise and specialised skills. The 2000 European Landscape Convention, adopted in Florence, focuses on landscape conservation and addresses the impacts of urbanisation and development on cultural and natural landscapes, with a view to ensuring that these environments remain protected as part of Europe's cultural identity. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), in a 2013 resolution, pointed out the need for a European label for industrial heritage to ensure its effective protection and called for
continuous encouragement of public involvement and volunteer work to generate awareness and appreciation of the value of industrial heritage and contribute through grassroots initiatives to designating for protection, preserving and converting to new uses thousands of industrial heritage sites across Europe.
It recommended that member states sign, ratify and implement the 2000 European Landscape Convention and the Faro Convention. This resolution invited the EU and UNESCO to cooperate with the Council of Europe to support the implementation of these conventions and, through a pan-European network involving other relevant organisations active in the area of industrial heritage, such as the European Route of Industrial Heritage network, the European Federation of Associations of Industrial and Technical Heritage (E-FAITH) and Europa Nostra, to develop 'guidance and financial incentives for the protection and preservation of industrial heritage sites across Europe' and to 'establish a catalogue of good practice and case studies' regarding conservation.
In addition, this resolution recommended that member states join the European Route of Industrial Heritage network (ERIH), and 'include in the legislation on protection of historic sites specific criteria to be applied to industrial heritage, so that a greater number of sites can be designated for protection'. Member states were recommended to create interdisciplinary research teams possessing scientific and technical expertise, to draw up and regularly update inventories of industrial heritage at regional and national level. They were also recommended to form advisory panels of experts and representatives of official agencies to take decisions on sites being considered for protection. This resolution pointed out the need to introduce specific criteria applicable to industrial heritage in legislation on the protection of historic sites, to ensure that a greater number of sites can be protected, especially in urban areas where land prices have increased drastically. Industrial heritage sites should be valued as 'part of a wider social landscape interconnected with skills and local memory and identity'. When converting industrial buildings to new uses, measures to guarantee respect for the character and integrity of the buildings should be introduced. Industrial housing may represent the best surviving evidence of the industrial era. It may also be among the least researched and understood, and among the most vulnerable.
The year 2015 was designated as the European Year of Industrial and Technical Heritage by E-Faith (the European Federation of Organisations Engaged in Industrial Heritage), with over 30 countries across the continent highlighting the theme through European Heritage Days and regional exhibitions, telling 'stories of how and where we worked, the kind of jobs we had and how we lived'. The European Heritage Days are a Council of Europe annual initiative launched in 1985 and formally joined by the European Commission in 1999. Today this initiative involves 48 countries that are signatories to the European Cultural Convention.
The fascinating but often neglected industrial heritage sites that could be visited during the 2015 heritage days were very diverse: 'from exploring the historic shipyard of Belfast's Titanic quarter to participating in an archaeological dig at Dublin's Swords Castle; from climbing the lighthouses of Normandy to descending an iron ore mine in Portugal's Torre de Moncorvo; from sending a telegram in Slovenia to touring a traditional olive oil mill in Spain's Senia territory, or a textiles factory in Switzerland, or an ironworks furnace in Finland'. More than 30 counties joined this industrial heritage initiative.
The Cultural Routes programme, launched by the Council of Europe in 1987, represents 'a journey through space and time', showing 'how the heritage of the different countries and cultures of Europe contributes to a shared and living cultural heritage'. Within the Cultural Routes programme, the European Route of Industrial Heritage (ERIH) mentioned earlier in this document, originated from an eponymous Interreg project covering a small area in north-western Europe that later expanded to include more than 2 400 locations in countries across Europe, including over 100 'Anchor Points' and 16 theme routes covering different branches of industry. All these industrial sites bear witness to 'scientific discoveries, technological innovation and workers' life histories'. In addition, the routes 'offer visitors a glimpse of Europe's many connections and interdependencies'.
The Architects' Council of Europe (ACE), a network organisation representing the interests of over half a million architects from 36 countries in Europe, engages with industrial heritage through adaptive reuse advocacy, policy declarations, and cross-sector European partnerships aimed at transforming former industrial, religious, and civic structures into sustainable modern spaces. Its Urban Transformation & Housing Workgroup focuses on housing, cultural heritage and the New European Bauhaus (NEB), among other areas. The Leeuwarden Declaration (2018), co-signed by ACE, ERIH and Europa Nostra, promotes the adaptive reuse of built heritage – including industrial architecture –as a driver for sustainable development, community identity, and circular economy principles in Europe.
European Union: Definitions and actions on industrial heritage
Cultural heritage has been a fundamental element of European integration and development. Europe's rich cultural heritage reflects centuries of interaction among diverse languages, architectural currents, traditions, practices and shared values, which together have shaped its identity. According to the European Commission's dedicated webpage, cultural heritage is 'an inheritance from previous generations of Europeans and a legacy for those to come', 'a shared source of remembrance, understanding, identity, dialogue, cohesion and creativity'. It encompasses a broad spectrum of resources inherited from the past in all forms and aspects and, as stated in the 2014 Council conclusions on cultural heritage, results from the 'interaction between people and places through time and it is constantly evolving'.
The overarching objective of the EU in the area of culture is to 'respect [the Union's] rich cultural and linguistic diversity' and 'to ensure that Europe's cultural heritage is safeguarded and enhanced' (Article 3 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU)). While culture is a competence of the Member States, the EU can encourage cooperation between them and support or supplement their actions (Article 6 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, (TFEU)). Additionally, the EU must 'contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the Member States while respecting their national and regional diversity' and highlighting the common cultural heritage (Article 167 TFEU).
The EU does not have a specific definition and policy for industrial heritage. The 2014 Communication from the Commission, Towards an integrated approach to cultural heritage for Europe, promotes the development of sustainable, responsible and high-quality tourism, including products linked with cultural and industrial heritage. During the 2018 European Year of Cultural Heritage, industrial sites were highlighted as crucial pieces of Europe's shared identity. The initiative showed that preserving Europe's industrial heritage honours the human creativity and community roots that still has an impact on Europeans to this day.
The Commission's 2024-2029 political guidelines and priorities identify what constitutes 'our European way of life: our culture and our history' and stress the need to make it 'easier for people – especially younger generations – to benefit from Europe's rich and diverse cultural heritage'. The Commission's newly adopted Culture Compass for Europe provides a comprehensive and ambitious strategic framework for culture and makes extensive reference to cultural heritage. The Culture Compass outlines four long-term directions for EU cultural policymaking, one of which focuses on cultural heritage: drawing on culture and cultural heritage to become more competitive, resilient and cohesive.
The 18 June 2026 interinstitutional joint declaration – 'Europe for Culture – Culture for Europe', which accompanies the Culture Compass, lists 12 principles for cultural policies, four of which refer to cultural heritage:
-
ensuring access to culture and cultural heritage for everyone, especially young people and persons with disabilities, marginalised and disadvantaged groups, and people living in rural, remote or disadvantaged areas;
-
protecting, safeguarding and promoting Europe's rich natural and cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, and supporting intergenerational exchange to ensure the transmission of cultural heritage and knowledge from older to younger generations;
-
harnessing culture and cultural heritage to foster regional and territorial development, resilience, social cohesion and convergence between Europe's regions;
-
promoting the contribution of culture, including cultural heritage to the shift towards environmental sustainability.
The European Capitals of Culture (ECoC) is one of the most successful and well-known EU cultural initiatives, and it also focuses on industrial heritage. So far, 75 cities across Europe have been designated to hold the title of European Capital of Culture, including those designated for 2026. The initiative seeks to promote Europe's cultural diversity, foster a stronger sense of belonging and contribute to the development of the cultural sector, while also widening access to culture in the cities concerned. According to a study on ECoC events held between 2006 and 2023, 66 % of the host cities specifically restored and reused industrial sites and, more generally, 72 % of them incorporated industrial heritage. This demonstrates 'the increasing importance and recognition of industrial heritage across Europe and the strong linkage with culture and creativity as a driver of transformation and adaptive reuse'.
The European Heritage Label is an EU initiative that designates historical sites that embody and promote European ideals, values, history and integration. By recognising sites of shared cultural significance, the programme seeks to enhance citizens' appreciation for their common, yet diverse heritage, thereby strengthening the sense of belonging to the EU and reinforcing intercultural dialogue. To date, 80 sites have been selected, in line with the principles of inclusion and diversity, and some European Heritage Label sites represent industrial heritage, such as:
-
the Bois du Cazier (Marcinelle, Belgium) coal mining site, which tells the story of the working classes and immigration to Wallonia in Belgium in the 20th century, and is infamous for a disaster in 1956 in which 262 people of 12 different nationalities died. The tragedy triggered the creation of a health and safety body by the European Coal and Steel Community
-
Almadén Mining Park (Spain), a long-standing European industrial heritage site, originally opened as a mercury mine. It has been a centre of applied technological innovation for the last 500 years and is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a member of the European Industrial Heritage Association and an Anchor Point on the European Route of Industrial Heritage;
-
the industrial Heritage of Varkaus, (Finland), part of Varkaus, which emerged as an industrial centre in the late 19th century and developed around forestry, mechanical engineering, and energy production, reflecting the close relationship between natural resources and industrial transformation. Today, the site illustrates how industrial activity shaped both the urban fabric and the social identity of the town, promoting values such as social inclusion, equality, innovation, sustainability, and respect for human dignity;
-
Bosco delle Querce (Italy), added to the European Heritage Label in 2025, which stands as a European symbol of environmental accountability. The park emerged from the remediation of land contaminated by a 1976 chemical disaster and represents collective resilience and the capacity to transform an industrial ruin into an educational space and a place of collective memory and environmental regeneration.
The European Heritage Awards/Europa Nostra Awards, an important European Commission initiative launched in 2002, is managed by Europa Nostra, a civil society organisation committed to safeguarding and promoting European heritage. This prestigious prize is awarded to European projects that demonstrate excellence and best practices in the conservation and enhancement of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Winners are organised into five categories, reflecting the broad spectrum of activities within the cultural heritage sector. One category focuses on conservation and adaptive reuse. A notable example is the transformation of a former factory in Łódź, Poland, into a vibrant cultural complex, illustrating how industrial remains can be successfully repurposed to serve contemporary community needs.
The 7 Most Endangered programme, a Europa Nostra initiative, is a civil-society initiative dedicated to saving Europe's heritage at risk. It operates with the support of the European Investment Bank (EIB) Institute and is funded by the Creative Europe programme. Since its launch in 2013, the programme has selected 77 threatened monuments and heritage sites from 35 countries across Europe. It mobilises expertise, stops unsuitable or unsustainable development and/or provides necessary public and private support. Each selected site is eligible for an EIB Heritage grant of €10 000 to put in place an activity that will contribute to its preservation. On the list for 2026is the Blower Hall in Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, a monumental structure built for iron ore processing. This site could become a 'multipurpose space for culture, university education, science and community engagement' and serve as a model for adaptive reuse.
The European Commission's expert group on the open method of coordination (OMC), which addresses the impact of climate change on cultural heritage, produced a report for 2021-2022 titled Strengthening cultural heritage resilience for climate change. This report highlights the need for a radical change in the public mindset regarding the cultural heritage sector, stating: 'It is more climate friendly to maintain, repair, reuse and retrofit than to demolish and build new, and this fact must be widely communicated'. The report specifically cites industrial heritage in two best practice examples.
The European Commission's Cultural Heritage Forum, an expert group on cultural heritage, serves as a platform for consultation and information exchange on cultural heritage policies. It supports the implementation of the European Framework for Action on Cultural Heritage, of which ERIH is a member.
Europa Nostra has a specialised Industrial and Engineering Heritage Committee that provides advice on various matters, including the above-mentioned awards.
ERIH developed with funding from the EU's Interreg II programme in 2001, with the Interreg III programme ensuring its implementation. The initiative started in north-west European countries and later expanded to other countries. Since October 2014, ERIH has been funded by the Creative Europe network funding programme. Creative Europe also finances other cultural heritage networks, such as ACE and Europa Nostra, as well as initiatives in the cultural heritage area such as the ECoC, the European Heritage Days, the European Heritage Label, European Heritage Awards/Europa Nostra Awards and the 7 Most Endangered Programme of Europa Nostra.
Other EU programmes that provide funding for industrial heritage projects include the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the Just Transition Fund and Horizon Europe. Regulation (EU) 2021/1056 establishing the Just Transition Fund specifically highlights the importance of tangible and non-tangible mining heritage, including mining culture, and the need to preserve the identity of mining communities, by maintaining links between their past and their future.
According to the Culture Compass, the Commission has proposed that, under the next multiannual financial framework (MFF), culture also be supported through other relevant EU instruments, including the European Competitiveness Fund, Horizon Europe, the national and regional partnership plans and the Global Europe instrument. The CulturEU funding guide further facilitates access to funding opportunities for the cultural and creative sectors under EU programmes for 2021-2027, helping stakeholders identify the most suitable sources of EU support. The Commission will update the guide to reflect funding opportunities for culture under the next EU budget.
Types of industrial heritage
Industrial heritage comprises both (movable and immovable) tangible elements and intangible elements.
Tangible immovable elements
These elements include the physical remains of industrial culture, such as sites, structures, complexes and landscapes, encompassing extraction sites, production complexes and infrastructure used for energy and transport. They can also form prominent features of regional landscapes, for example, in the form of blast furnaces, machine halls, slag heaps and port cranes. Some of this infrastructure, such as bridges, canals and railways, is still in use today, while other traces of industry remain as abandoned mills, rusting machinery and brick chimneys that mark the places where there were once vibrant workplaces and communities. Industrial sites can relate to a wide range of sectors, including mining, textiles, transport and aeronautics. Transport-related industrial heritage includes associated land- and water-based infrastructure, such as railways, canals and shipyards, while aeronautical heritage can include airfields, hangars and other aviation-related industrial structures.
Tangible movable elements
These elements include machinery, specimens of industrial products and other movable objects used and produced at industrial sites, such as steam and other engines, factory machinery, mining equipment and railway rolling stock, such as locomotives and wagons, as well as hydraulic and water-management devices, such as pumps, valves and millwheels, and shipping and port equipment.
Industrialisation also reshaped land, water and air transport, leaving behind historic cars, bicycles, household appliances, agricultural vehicles and aircraft, factory complexes, power plants, aviation infrastructure, as well as tools linked to industrial production and others. Historic vehicles bear witness to the know-how of successive generations and the transmission of craft and mechanical skills.
Box-1 Cars in the movable industrial heritage
Cars are emblematic examples of movable industrial heritage, reflecting the technological innovation, design creativity and social transformation brought about by the automotive age. As mass-produced movable artefacts, they document not only the engineering advances of their time but also the cultural aspirations and identities of the societies that built and used them. This dual significance was underscored in 2025, when Autoworld Brussels, Belgium's national car museum, which houses more than 300 vehicles, including cars, trucks and motorcycles dating from 1896 to the present, received the Automotive Industrial Heritage Recognition Award, jointly awarded by the Fédération Internationale des Véhicules Anciens (FIVA) and TICCIH.
Extensive written documentation such as company archives and building plans also forms part of tangible industrial heritage, providing evidence of past or ongoing industrial processes and bearing historical, cultural and, in some cases, artistic value.
Intangible elements
These elements are part of industrial heritage, together with machinery, documents, structures and landscapes, and are just as important as tangible elements. They exist in the memories, arts, and customs of the people who worked in these industries.
Intangible industrial heritage includes human skills and knowledge, technical know-how, work organisation, unions and the social memory of industrial life, including routines, knowledge and collective practices passed down through workers and communities, together with the social life of workers and communities. It encompasses the social and cultural legacy that shaped the life of communities and brought major organisational changes to entire societies and the world, such as the development of trade unions and strikes, etc. The protection of cultural heritage, including its intangible dimension, means protecting the memory of a community across time.
Other examples of industrial heritage in the EU
The examples of industrial heritage included in different initiatives of UNESCO, the Council of Europe and the European Union are not sufficient to portray the diversity, the scale and the importance of the legacy of the industrial revolution across the EU.
The Ruhr Metropolis (Germany) features the Industrial heritage route in the Ruhr area, 'one of the world's leading mining regions'. The 400-kilometre circuit includes the UNESCO World Heritage Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex, the Gasometer Oberhausen, the Hansa Coking Plant in Dortmund and the Aquarius Water Museum in Mülheim, among other sites, and portrays the area's 150-year industrial past.
The Nord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin (France) was included on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2012. It is a notable example of industrial heritage, as coal mining shaped the area for three centuries and much of its mining landscape has been preserved. It includes industrial buildings and pitheads, as well as complementary elements such as transport infrastructure, workers' housing and structures associated with community life.
The Grand Hornu (Belgium) is one of the earliest planned industrial settlements in continental Europe, a UNESCO World Heritage site and an important attraction for visitors from all over the world. Built in the early 19th century as a coal mining complex, it combines monumental industrial architecture with a carefully designed workers' village, making it a striking example of the integration of production, housing and social organisation within a single industrial site.
Dolní Vítkovice in Ostrava (Czechia) is a major former centre of heavy industrial production, black coal mining and raw steel production in the Moravian-Silesian Region, which was transformed into a 'unique educational, cultural, and social centre'.
The Santa Barbara Mining Trail in Sardinia (Italy) is a 500 km historical, cultural and religious itinerary in the Geo-mining Historical Environmental Park of Sardinia, a national site 'in the oldest part of Italy between sea, mountains, mines through 8 000 years of history'.
Roșia Montană Mining (Romania) is located in the Metalliferous Mountains of the Apuseni range in the western Carpathians Mountains and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2021. It represents 'the most significant, extensive and technically diverse underground Roman gold mining complex known in the world', dating from the Roman occupation of the region, and set in an agro-pastoral landscape.
Conclusions
Within the 27 Member States of EU, the count of industrial heritage sites is highly dense. Industrial heritage remains a source of learning that demonstrates human inventive talent and scientific development. In addition, it is imprinted on the landscape and preserves the memory and identity of a certain period in history, and a specific way of life. It is important because of the meaning people attach to it and the values it represents for communities. Industrial heritage is now considered an essential component of a common European identity and can sometimes serve locally as the main provider of a sense of identity for many territories. It bridges the past and present through shared industrial roots. The efforts of voluntary and non-governmental organisations have made an important contribution to the conservation, rehabilitation and reuse of industrial heritage.
Conservation of industrial heritage is a key component of sustainable development, as it extends the life cycle of existing structures and preserves their embodied energy. Safeguarding industrial heritage is a significant challenge. Many sites are often overwhelmingly large and complex and frequently suffer from severe environmental contamination. Conversely, industrial heritage can also serve as a powerful catalyst for regional regeneration. Success in these initiatives often depends heavily on how local communities perceive and value their industrial past, making a strong sense of civic ownership vital.
Statement on the use of AI
Any AI-generated content in this text has been reviewed by the author(s).
Disclaimer
This document is prepared for, and addressed to, the Members and staff of the European Parliament as background material to assist them in their parliamentary work. The content of the document is the sole responsibility of its author(s) and any opinions expressed herein should not be taken to represent an official position of the Parliament.
Copyright
© European Union.
The reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY 4.0) licence.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
To use or reproduce elements that are not owned by the European Union, permission may need to be sought directly from the respective rightsholders.