Understanding the terminology

The terms 'pesticides', 'plant protection products' and 'active substances' are often used interchangeably in public debate, but they refer to distinct concepts in EU legislation.

Pesticides is the broadest term. It designates substances or mixtures intended to prevent, destroy, repel or control harmful organisms. The category includes both plant protection products used in agriculture and certain biocidal products used outside agriculture (for example, disinfectants, wood preservatives or rodenticides). Pesticides include: herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, acaricides, nematicides, molluscicides, growth regulators, repellents, rodenticides and biocides, amongst other things. Under EU law, pesticides can be biological, chemical or naturally derived.

Plant protection products are a specific category of pesticides regulated under Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009. They typically contain one or more active substances together with co-formulants – such as solvents, stabilisers or adjuvants – which help ensure the product can be stored, handled and applied effectively. Examples include herbicides used to control weeds, fungicides used against fungal diseases, insecticides used against insect pests, and growth regulators that influence plant development.

An active substance is the component of a plant protection product that produces the intended biological effect. It is the ingredient that kills, repels, suppresses or otherwise controls the target pest, disease or weed. For example, glyphosate is an active substance used in a range of herbicide products, while copper compounds are active substances used in many fungicides. Active substances may be synthetic chemicals, naturally occurring compounds, microorganisms, plant extracts or pheromones.

How pesticides are used in the European Union

Plant protection products are widely used in agriculture to protect crops against weeds, pests and diseases. The environmental and health impacts associated with pesticide use depend not only on the intrinsic properties of the active substances concerned, but also on factors such as application rate, frequency of use, application method, crop type and local environmental conditions.

Comprehensive and harmonised EU statistics on the actual agricultural use of pesticides remain limited. While EU countries have historically reported pesticide sales data under Regulation (EC) No 1185/2009, the new Regulation (EU) 2022/2379 on statistics on agricultural inputs and outputs, which entered into force on 1 January 2025, establishes a framework for the collection of harmonised data on pesticide use from reference year 2025 onwards.

Pending the availability of these new use data, pesticide sales remain the principal harmonised indicator at EU level (see Figure 1). According to Eurostat, approximately 316 000 tonnes of pesticides were sold in the EU in 2024, representing an increase of around 8 % compared with 2023. Nevertheless, 2024 recorded the second-lowest sales volume since the start of the time series in 2011 and remained 12 % below the 2011‑2021 average. The increase compared with 2023 was largely attributed to wetter weather conditions, which increased demand for fungicides and molluscicides to combat humidity-related pathogens.

Data source: Eurostat, Pesticide sales, 2026.

Between 2011 and 2024, there were contrasting developments in the volume of pesticide sales across EU countries (see Figure 2). Sales were lower in 14 countries, with the five sharpest rates of decline recorded in Czechia (-44 %), followed by Italy (-43 %), Ireland (-42 %) and Portugal (-40 %). By contrast, sales volumes increased in Germany, Finland, France, Lithuania, Austria and Latvia.

Data source: Eurostat, Pesticide sales, 2026.

How active substances are approved

The authorisation of pesticides in the EU follows a two-step system. First, the active substance contained in a plant protection product must be approved at EU level under Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009. Only after an active substance has been approved can individual plant protection products containing that substance be authorised for use by EU countries.

To obtain EU approval, the manufacturer submits an application to a designated 'rapporteur Member State' (RMS), which carries out an initial scientific assessment of the substance. The assessment examines, among other things, the substance's toxicological properties, potential effects on human and animal health, environmental impact and behaviour, ecotoxicity, and efficacy. The RMS prepares a draft assessment report, which is subsequently peer-reviewed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in consultation with EU countries and, where appropriate, external experts.

Based on EFSA's scientific conclusions, the European Commission prepares a proposal on whether the active substance should be approved, approved subject to restrictions, or not approved. The final decision is taken by EU countries through a vote in the Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed (PAFF Committee). Approved active substances are included in the EU list of authorised substances for a limited period and are subject to periodic renewal.

All approved active substances are listed in Implementing Regulation (EU) No 540/2011 and included, together with safeners and synergists,¹ in the EU Pesticides Database.

Depending on their characteristics, some active substances can be approved as 'low risk' substances or as candidates for substitution.

Active substances are approved at EU level for a limited period. Under Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009, the initial approval period is generally 10 years, although low-risk substances may be approved for up to 15 years and candidates for substitution for up to 7 years. Before an approval expires, the substance may undergo a renewal assessment based on the latest scientific evidence. Renewals may be granted for a period not exceeding 15 years. In practice, the Commission may temporarily extend approval periods where a renewal assessment cannot be completed before the expiry date.

The EU framework combines risk-based assessment with certain hazard-based exclusion criteria. As a result, substances classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for reproduction, as well as substances identified as endocrine disruptors, may be excluded from approval unless specific derogations apply. The approval process is guided by the precautionary principle and aims to ensure a high level of protection for human health, animal health and the environment.

How plant protection products are authorised

Once an active substance has been approved at EU level, individual plant protection products containing that substance must be authorised before they can be placed on the market and used. Unlike active substance approval, which is carried out centrally at EU level, the authorisation of plant protection products is primarily the responsibility of EU countries.

Applicants submit an authorisation dossier to a national competent authority, which assesses the product under the specific agricultural, climatic and environmental conditions prevailing in the country concerned. The assessment covers, among other things, the product's efficacy, operator and consumer exposure, environmental impacts, and potential effects on non-target organisms. A plant protection product may only be authorised if it is shown to be effective and does not pose unacceptable risks to human health, animal health or the environment when used according to the proposed conditions of use.

To facilitate the process, the EU is divided into three authorisation zones (northern, central and southern). EU countries within the same zone recognise each other's assessments, allowing companies to seek authorisations in several countries based on a single evaluation. This system aims to reduce administrative burden while ensuring a high level of protection. EU countries may nevertheless impose specific national conditions or restrictions where justified by local agricultural or environmental circumstances. In addition to zonal authorisations, Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 also provides for mutual recognition, under which a plant protection product authorised in one EU country may, under certain conditions, be authorised in another EU country on the basis of the original assessment.

Plant protection product authorisations are granted by national authorities for a period not exceeding one year after the expiry of the approval of the active substances they contain. They may be reviewed, amended or withdrawn where the conditions for authorisation are no longer met.

Pesticides residues in food: How limits are set

Maximum residue levels (MRLs) are the highest concentrations of pesticide residues legally permitted in or on food and feed. They apply to both products produced within the EU and imported from third countries and serve primarily as a tool for ensuring that pesticide use complies with authorised agricultural practices and does not pose an unacceptable risk to consumers.

The MRLs are established under Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 following a scientific assessment by EFSA. An application for a new MRL or a modification of an existing MRL may be submitted by an EU country, a pesticide manufacturer or a third country. The application must include data from supervised field trials demonstrating the residue levels that remain when a pesticide is used according to authorised agricultural practices.

EFSA assesses the proposed MRL by evaluating the residue data and estimating consumer exposure through food consumption. This assessment considers both long-term (chronic) exposure resulting from regular consumption of food containing residues and short-term (acute) exposure that could arise from consuming a large quantity of a product in a single meal. An MRL can only be proposed if EFSA concludes that the resulting exposure is unlikely to exceed established toxicological reference values and therefore does not pose a risk to consumer health.

Based on EFSA's scientific opinion, the European Commission prepares a draft measure setting or amending the MRL. The proposal is then discussed and voted on by EU countries in the PAFF committee. Once adopted, the MRL becomes directly applicable throughout the EU and is enforced through national monitoring and control programmes.

It is important to note that an MRL is not a toxicological safety threshold. Exceeding an MRL does not automatically mean that a food product is unsafe. Rather, MRLs are legal limits derived from authorised uses of pesticides and are set at levels that ensure consumer exposure remains well below health-based guidance values established during the risk assessment process. In cases where no specific MRL has been established, a default MRL of 0.01 mg/kg generally applies.

For imported products, the EU may establish specific import tolerances (see specific section).

How rules are enforced

The EU pesticide framework relies on a multi-level system of controls involving national authorities, the European Commission and EFSA. While the approval of active substances and the setting of MRLs are harmonised at EU level, enforcement is primarily carried out by EU countries through official controls, inspections and monitoring programmes.

National authorities are responsible for ensuring compliance with the conditions governing the placing on the market and use of plant protection products under Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009. This includes inspection of manufacturers, distributors and professional users, as well as checks on product composition, labelling, storage, marketing and use. Where non-compliance is detected, national authorities may impose enforcement measures, including restrictions on use, withdrawal of authorisation, product recalls and administrative or criminal sanctions. EU countries are also responsible for verifying compliance with MRLs established under Regulation (EC) No 396/2005. Each year, national authorities collect and analyse food and feed samples produced within the EU and imported from third countries.

Imported food products must comply with the same MRLs as food produced in the EU and are subject to official controls at border control posts and throughout the food supply chain, including documentary checks, identity checks and laboratory analyses. Where recurring non-compliance is identified, the EU may impose reinforced controls or emergency measures on specific products or countries of origin.

The European Commission, through the Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, oversees the implementation of EU pesticide legislation and monitors the performance of national control systems. The Commission adopts an annual work programme of audits and controls, setting priorities for inspections and fact-finding missions in EU countries and third countries on the basis of risk and previous findings.These activities are designed to verify that national authorities have effective control systems in place and apply EU requirements consistently. Where deficiencies are identified, the Commission may require corrective action and follow up on its implementation. Controls on pesticides, plant protection products and pesticide residues form part of the broader framework established by Regulation (EU) 2017/625 on official controls, which requires EU countries to organise risk-based controls throughout the agri-food chain and to ensure effective, proportionate and dissuasive enforcement measures in cases of non-compliance.

EFSA's role is scientific rather than regulatory. EFSA evaluates monitoring data submitted by EU countries, assesses consumer exposure to pesticide residues and publishes annual reports on pesticide residues in food. Its assessments draw on both national monitoring programmes and the EU coordinated multiannual control programmes. EFSA's 2026 report on pesticide residues analyses data collected in 2024 under three monitoring streams: the EU coordinated multiannual control programme, national multiannual control programmes, and increased import controls. Under the EU-coordinated multiannual control programme, 9 842 samples were analysed: 2.4 % exceeded the applicable MRLs and 1.2 % were non-compliant after measurement uncertainty was taken into account. Under national multiannual control programmes, 86 449 samples were analysed: 3.3 % exceeded MRLs and 1.8 % were non-compliant. Finally, among 39 433 samples taken under increased import controls, 5.5 % exceeded MRLs and 3.6 % were non-compliant. Non-compliant consignments were prevented from entering the EU market. EFSA concluded that the estimated dietary exposure posed a low risk to consumer health for most assessed substances and population groups.

Imported food and pesticides residues

Regulation (EC) No 396/2005 allows for the establishment of import tolerances, which are specific MRLs set for imported products where the use of a pesticide is authorised in a third country but not authorised, or not authorised in the same way, within the EU.

Import tolerance applications may be submitted by pesticide manufacturers, food importers or third countries. Applicants must provide residue data demonstrating the levels likely to occur when the pesticide is used according to the good agricultural practice (GAP) authorised in the exporting country. The GAP refers to the officially approved conditions of use of a pesticide, including application rates, frequency, timing and pre-harvest intervals. The purpose of an import tolerance is therefore not to recognise foreign regulatory standards as equivalent to EU rules, but rather to facilitate trade while ensuring that residues resulting from lawful agricultural practices outside the EU remain safe for European consumers.

An import tolerance may only be established where EFSA concludes that the resulting residues are unlikely to pose a risk to human health. The European Commission and EU countries then decide whether to adopt the proposed MRL through the comitology procedure.

When setting or reviewing MRLs, the EU is required to take account of international standards established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission – the joint food standards body of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). Codex establishes international pesticide residue limits known as Codex maximum residue limits (CXLs), based on scientific assessments conducted by the joint FAO/WHO meeting on pesticide residues.

Under Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005, the Commission and EU countries may decide to align an EU MRL with an existing CXL, provided that EFSA's assessment confirms that the residue level is safe for consumers. However, Codex standards are not automatically incorporated into EU law. The EU may establish a lower MRL or decline to adopt a CXL where concerns are identified regarding consumer protection or where the supporting scientific evidence is considered insufficient.

Import tolerances have become increasingly prominent in discussions on reciprocity and 'mirror measures'.

Proponents argue that import tolerances help facilitate international trade while maintaining a high level of consumer protection through EFSA's risk assessment and warn that restricting such tolerances may lead to unnecessary trade disruptions without delivering additional health benefits.

Opponents maintain import tolerances undermine the objectives of EU pesticide legislation by allowing residues from substances that have been banned in the EU for health or environmental reasons to remain present on imported food and can create unfair competition for EU farmers, who are no longer allowed to use those substances.

The Commission considers import tolerances to be a legitimate mechanism for accommodating differences in agricultural practices and pest pressures between the EU and third countries while facilitating international trade. Commission communications emphasise that the same scientific criteria apply to MRLs based on uses within the EU and to import tolerances based on uses authorised in third countries, and that the EU takes account of its international commitments, including Codex standards and WTO sanitary and phytosanitary measures, when setting MRLs.

The Commission committed in its 2020 chemicals strategy for sustainability to ensure that hazardous chemicals banned in the EU would no longer be produced for export. While preparatory work, including a public consultation has been undertaken, no legislative proposal has yet been tabled. The Commission indicated in January 2026, in response to a parliamentary question, that it was still assessing possible policy options.

Separately, in November 2025, the Commission launched an impact assessment examining options to strengthen reciprocity between EU production standards and requirements applicable to imported products. The assessment focuses on the most hazardous pesticides banned in the EU and is intended to inform possible future legislative action aimed at ensuring that such pesticides do not enter the EU market through imported food, while assessing the potential impacts on trade, competitiveness and consumers.

Reducing the risk from pesticides

Since the 1990s, EU pesticide policy has progressively evolved from a primary focus on the safety of individual substances towards a broader objective of reducing the risks and impacts associated with pesticide use. The cornerstone of this approach is Directive 2009/128/EC, which established a framework for achieving a more sustainable use of pesticides by reducing risks to human health and the environment and promoting the use of alternative pest management techniques.

A central element of the directive is integrated pest management, under which farmers are required to prioritise preventive, biological, physical and other non-chemical methods before resorting to chemical pesticides. The directive also requires EU countries to adopt national action plans setting national objectives, targets and measures to reduce pesticide-related risks and to promote sustainable pest management practices. Other measures include training and certification of professional users, inspection of pesticide application equipment and restrictions on pesticide use in sensitive areas.

Reducing dependence on chemical pesticides became a key objective under the European Green Deal and the farm-to-fork strategy, which in 2020 announced a target to reduce by 50 % both the use and risk of chemical pesticides and the use of more hazardous pesticides by 2030. To implement these objectives, the Commission proposed a regulation on the sustainable use of plant protection products in 2022, which would have replaced Directive 2009/128/EC and introduced legally binding EU reduction targets. However, in view of the European Parliament's rejection of the proposal and the lack of progress in the Council, the Commission withdrew the proposal in February 2024.

Despite the withdrawal of the 2022 proposal, the Commission continues to monitor progress towards the two non-legally binding pesticide reduction targets. Progress is assessed annually using the harmonised risk indicators (HRI 1 and HRI 2) established under Directive 2009/128/EC. According to the Commission's latest update, published in July 2025, the EU has reduced the use and risk of chemical pesticides by 58 % and the use of more hazardous pesticides by 27 %, compared with the baseline 2015-2017 period (see Figure 3). The Commission has also published data on the progress made by individual EU countries towards both targets, illustrating considerable variation across the EU.

Data source: European Commission, Trends in the use and risk of chemical pesticides and in the use of more hazardous pesticides, July 2025.

The indicators provide a common framework for tracking trends over time, although their ability to reflect changes in actual exposure and risk has been the subject of debate. In its 2020 Special report on the sustainable use of plant protection products, the European Court of Auditors highlighted methodological limitations of the harmonised risk indicators in measuring progress in reducing pesticide risks and noted that these indicators are strongly influenced by changes in the approval status of substances rather than actual changes in pesticide use and exposure.

Food and feed safety simplification package

How pesticides may affect human health

Pesticides are designed to affect living organisms and, depending on the level, duration and timing of exposure, may also have adverse effects on human health. Exposure can occur through multiple pathways, including the consumption of food and drinking water containing residues, inhalation of contaminated air or spray drift, and direct contact during the manufacture, handling or application of pesticides (see Figure 4). Agricultural workers and pesticide applicators are generally considered to be at greater risk of exposure than the general population. EFSA's regulatory guidance similarly distinguishes between operators, workers, bystanders and residents, reflecting the different exposure scenarios considered in pesticide risk assessments.

Data source: European Environment Agency, How pesticides impact human health and ecosystems in Europe, 2026.

According to the European Environment Agency, scientific evidence links exposure to certain chemical pesticides with a range of adverse health outcomes. Acute exposure can result in poisoning incidents, particularly among occupationally exposed groups (see Figure 5). Chronic exposure has been associated with an increased risk of several diseases, including certain cancers and cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological conditions. Evidence has also emerged linking some pesticides to developmental and reproductive effects, particularly where exposure occurs during sensitive stages of development. However, the strength of the evidence varies across health outcomes and substances, and establishing causal relationships remains challenging given the long latency periods involved, the diversity of pesticides used and the fact that people are typically exposed to mixtures of chemicals rather than individual substances.

Data source: European Environment Agency, How pesticides impact human health and ecosystems in Europe, 2026. Note: HBM4EU is a consortium led by the German Environment Agency, bringing together leading European expertise on human biomonitoring from 24 EU Member States, Norway, Iceland, Israel, Switzerland and the European Environment Agency.

Overall, the available evidence points to the importance of minimising unnecessary exposure and continuing to strengthen monitoring and research, while acknowledging that significant uncertainties remain regarding the health impacts of long-term, low-level exposure to multiple pesticides.

Pesticides remain a public concern

Food safety remains an important concern for Europeans, and pesticide residues continue to feature prominently among the risks they associate with food.

According to a 2025 Eurobarometer on food safety, 67 % of Europeans report they are familiar with the issue of pesticide residues, while 39 % identify pesticide residues in food among their main food-related concerns.

At the same time, trust in the institutions and expertise underpinning the food safety system remains relatively high: 84 % of respondents trust scientists working in publicly funded organisations as a source of information on food risks, while 70 % trust national authorities and 69 % trust EU institutions.

The survey findings suggest that Europeans expect the food system to deliver on several objectives simultaneously: ensuring a high level of protection for human health and the environment, providing safe and affordable food, supporting agricultural production and maintaining confidence in the regulatory system.

These expectations mirror many of the trade-offs that shape EU pesticide policy and help explain why debates on the use of pesticides remain both technically complex and politically sensitive.