Introduction

Media freedom and pluralism, entrenched as fundamental rights in both the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU and the European Convention on Human Rights, are indissociable from democracy, as they protect the pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which democratic societies cannot flourish. Media organisations not only provide the information that citizens need to make sound political choices, they also play other important roles, such as: (i) acting as 'watchdogs' of democracy and increasing democratic representatives' accountability; (ii) providing analysis of what is happening and helping citizens to understand an increasingly complex world; (iii) boosting inclusiveness and making the voices of minorities heard; and (iv) acting as a public forum for dialogue among citizens and groups with diverse points of view.

Although the EU is actively committed to protecting the safety and independence of journalists as an integral part of a proper democratic society, journalists are increasingly vulnerable to direct attacks on their physical safety and integrity. In recent years those attacks and threats against journalists have been documented and reported, including by the Commission's annual rule of law reports (in 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023 and 2024) and the Media Pluralism Monitor. No European Union Member State is free from risks to media freedom and pluralism, although the extent and gravity of those risks vary greatly across Europe, as confirmed by the World Press Freedom index.

The objective of such attacks is to silence journalists who act as public watchdogs, to spread a 'chilling effect' and ultimately to prevent the creation of a public civic space where citizens can have a democratic debate on issues of public interest. Threats, harassment, physical and verbal violence, public shaming, smear campaigns and even assassinations of journalists have been reported, for instance, by Media Freedom Rapid Response (MFRR). Moreover, Liberties' 2024 Media Freedom Report also refers to: violence taking place while journalists are reporting during demonstrations and protests, bashing by politicians, state surveillance and new government restrictions on access to information to 'muzzle' journalists. Online spaces are meanwhile becoming increasingly hostile and replete with gender-based hate speech .

Journalists have been killed in revenge attacks because of their work, while others have lost their lives in crossfire, i.e. on a battlefield or in a military context. Other journalists and media professionals have lost their lives while on dangerous assignments – for instance, while covering riots – or because they were involved in political journalism, war reporting, or investigations relating to human rights, crime or corruption. A 2024 UNESCO study revealed for instance that 70 % of environmental journalists had been victims of violence or threats because of their work.

A 2022 briefing commissioned by the European Parliament confirms the progressive erosion of media freedom around the world, and concludes that 'Impunity remains unacceptably high, with most cases of killings remaining unresolved'.

Against this backdrop, it is therefore important to ensure not only that journalists can operate in a safe environment but also that investigations and prosecutions of crimes against journalists are conducted with impartiality, transparency and independence, to enable them to fulfil 'their crucial role on the ground'. Investigative journalists play a key role in combating organised crime and corruption and, because of that, they are more likely to be subject to threats and violence, including physical and verbal abuse.

Seeking to fight this culture of impunity, in December 2013, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed 2 November as the International Day to End Impunity for Crimes against Journalists. The date was chosen to commemorate the assassination in Mali on 2 November 2013 of two French journalists: Claude Verlon and Ghislaine Dupont. However the situation remains critical, with a 2022 report by Free Press Unlimited stating that in eight out of ten cases the killers of journalists remain unpunished nowadays. In Europe for instance, as of 30 October 2024, there are 24 active cases of impunity for murdered journalists.

With social media providing a platform for people to threaten and harass journalists, the 2024 Council of Europe report on Press Freedom in Europe mentions a number of national initiatives launched in recent years to protect journalists and enable them to conduct their watchdog role. In Italy, the Interior Ministry has been monitoring threats and acts of violence towards journalists since 2017, with 46 events reported in 2023, including verbal and physical violence. Sweden and the United Kingdom have introduced national action plans to protect the freedom of speech and ensure the safety of journalists. In the Netherlands, the PersVeilig initiative operates to help journalists facing physical and online violence as well as to help them against legal claims. In Ireland, the Garda's Media Engagement Group, was established in 2022 after an increasing number of acts of violence against journalists were reported. In 2023 alone, 32 cases were lodged, of which 6 led to criminal investigations.

On 18 July 2024, European Commission President-elect Ursula von der Leyen presented her political guidelines for the 2024-2029 Commission before the new Parliament. She stressed the need to protect the EU's democracies and defend its common values by ensuring it is equipped to defend media freedom. Reacting to these political guidelines in a joint letter, Reporters Without Borders (RSF), Article 19 and 24 other organisations suggested appointing a vice-president responsible for media freedom and the protection of journalists. They also stressed the need to strengthen the right to reliable information on social platforms and to fight information manipulation.

Von der Leyen's mission letter to Michael McGrath – Commissioner-designate for Democracy, Justice and the Rule of Law – asked him to take action to ensure media freedom and protect independent media and journalists as well as to promote the rule of law culture among citizens, authorities and stakeholders through new initiatives, including legal ones. In his reply to the written questions ahead of his confirmation hearing, McGrath confirmed that the safety and protection of journalists would be of paramount importance during his mandate and that the Commission's annual rule of law report would continue to cover the protection and safety of journalists. Moreover, he confirmed his intention to monitor closely Member States' implementation of the 2021 recommendation on the safety of journalists and of the 2022 recommendation on protecting journalists and human rights defenders against manifestly unfounded or abusive court proceedings (strategic lawsuits against public participation – SLAPPs). Referring to the use of intrusive surveillance tools against journalists, he stressed the importance of implementation of the European Media Freedom Act and announced that the Commission would consult with Member States regarding possible exceptions to the general ban on intrusive surveillance software in devices.

Monitoring the situation of journalists

To raise awareness of the situation faced by journalists, it is of paramount importance to gather data and monitor developments. Several European initiatives have been undertaken to this end.

Violence against female journalists

The online harassment of journalists and media workers is a growing problem around the world, creating worrisome conditions for both journalists and activists. The online environment has been weaponised by readers, viewers and trolls. Yet, although the problem is documented, the precise magnitude of the phenomenon remains unclear as not all acts of online harassment and violence are reported. The challenges are many and include the difficulty of persecuting those who commit online crimes, and also the need to preserve the well-being and reputation of journalists who are targeted.

The Media Pluralism Monitor's 2023 report identifies all EU countries except Portugal and Romania as being at high or medium risk in terms of journalists' digital safety. A Reporters Without Borders report published in 2018 stressed how mass online harassment can be used not only to intimidate and silence journalists but also more broadly as a disinformation strategy, that becomes a way to intimidate and 'discipline' journalists. Without adequate support for online safety, this trend could lead to reduced freedom of expression as threats escalate to physical aggression.

Women are nearing numerical parity with men in journalism-related jobs in western European countries (e.g. 45 % in the UK, 40 % in Germany). However, female media workers appear to be subject to more threats, in particular online harassment, than their male counterparts. A 2021 UNESCO report clarifies that online violence against women journalists seeks to: 'belittle, humiliate, and shame; induce fear, silence, and retreat; discredit them professionally, undermining accountability journalism and trust in facts; and chill their active participation (along with that of their sources, colleagues and audiences) in public debate'.

For instance, a 2018 survey conducted by Amnesty International in the United States and in the United Kingdom revealed that 7 % of tweets sent to 778 female journalists and politicians were 'abusive' and that women of colour were 34 % more likely to receive sexist and aggressive messages than white women. Many are the forms of online harassment, but unlike men who are criticised mainly for their work, attacks on female journalists regularly focus on their personal and physical traits. A 2022 report by the International Centre for Journalists (ICFJ) argues that the impact of gender hatred towards female journalists is worse when linked with other forms of discrimination, such as racism, antisemitism or homophobia. Female journalists might be stalked, sent sexist content; their professional credentials challenged if not discredited; their personal data circulated and exposed in a way beyond their control.

A 2022 report by the International Centre for Journalists, based on a survey and supported by UNESCO, described how gender-based online violence against journalists has become a fundamental and persistent threat across the 113 countries surveyed. Nearly 73 % of the female respondents said they had experienced online violence linked to their professional activity; 25 % of respondents had experienced threats of physical violence and death threats, and 18 % had suffered threats of sexual violence. By spreading sexist and misogynistic attitudes, gender-based hatred does not just affect women, it also chills public interest journalism and 'deprives society of important voices and perspectives'. The study also describes how online violence has an impact on women's physical and mental health, but also how it impacts their employment situation and productivity. As reported by another study, by the International Women's Media Foundation and Troll‑Busters.com, online harassment can ultimately cause female journalists not to report certain stories, to close their inquiries, to move to another country, or even to abandon the profession definitively.

In September 2016, the United Nations Human Rights Council unanimously adopted resolution 33/2 on the safety of journalists. It condemns in particular attacks on female journalists in the exercise of their work, including sexual and gender-based discrimination and violence, and intimidation and harassment online and offline, thus highlighting the need to address the gender-specific threats faced by women journalists.

Along similar lines, the 2023 Media Pluralism Monitor shows that gender-based violence against women journalists represents a significant problem across Europe. A 2021 study by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) confirmed the growing online violence against female journalists and women active in politics too.

Developments during the ninth legislative term (2019-2024)

With its 2020 European democracy action plan , the European Commission announced that the EU would be stepping up its efforts to ensure media freedom and pluralism. The following year, in her State of the Union Address , President Ursula von der Leyen emphasised the role of journalists in ensuring transparency and access to information which is a public good. She also announced that the Commission would be proposing a Media Freedom Act. Also in 2021, specifically to protect journalists, the Commission put forward a recommendation on the protection, safety and empowerment of journalists in the context of the worrying growing trend of attacks, aggression and harassment against journalists. The recommendation built on the principles set out in the Council of Europe's recommendations and declarations in the field of media and information society (2016) and on the input collected by the European News Media Forum. This latter was an initiative launched in early 2021 to collect input from journalists and media companies, but also from Member States and regulatory authorities. The 2021 recommendation stressed that citizens need access to multiple sources of information to ensure that they can both build their own opinions and scrutinise governments. The Commission's main aim was to 'prevent the emergence of a 'culture' of impunity regarding attacks against journalists', and it invited Member States to create a safe and enabling environment. Specific recommendations were made to protect and empower female journalists, raise awareness, train law enforcement authorities and tackle online attacks against journalists.

The conclusions of a 2024 study prepared for the Commission and monitoring Member States' efforts to implement the 2021 recommendation are positive but mixed. It finds that the approaches adopted by the Member States are patchy, with some putting in place dedicated structures and governance systems and others relying on multiple sectoral initiatives. Only two Member States – Denmark and Lithuania – have put in place dedicated monitoring systems aligned with the recommendation, and only eleven have systems to monitor threats against journalists, meaning that the collection of reliable data remains a challenge. Only eight Member States have adopted specific approaches to ensure 'effective and impartial investigation for the protection of journalists', and only five share information about the investigation and prosecution of crimes against journalists with the other Member States. Similarly, only eight Member States have introduced specific social and economic measures to support journalists.

The services offered to protect journalists against online threats or harassment remain quite limited, with only seven Member States taking specific measures to protect journalists from online violence. The report recommends solutions such as: establishing dedicated working groups within regulatory authorities responsible for online law enforcement and cybersecurity; publishing regular reports on the effectiveness of national measures; and facilitating cooperation between online platforms and expert organisations in this field.

Other recommendations have been implemented by a higher number of Member States, for instance the recommendations to introduce specific training for journalists and to provide specialised support mechanisms for journalists (i.e. the provision of legal and/or psychological advice). The situation of journalists covering demonstrations, meanwhile, remains very difficult with an increasing number of violent acts against them.

The conclusions of the study were disputed by the European Federation of Journalists (EFJ) and by Free Press Unlimited, which argued that the 2021 recommendations had in fact only been marginally implemented. Along similar lines, the Media Freedom Rapid Response (MFRR) Coalition criticised the 'ostensibly positive assessment' of the study and considered that it had failed to capture the situation of journalists on the ground. The European Centre for Press and Media Freedom evaluated the implementation as very uneven, with pronounced differences between Member States.

During the ninth legislative term, the co-legislators adopted two important pieces of legislation to protect media freedom and the journalists in the EU: Directive (EU) 2024/1069 on protecting persons who engage in public participation from manifestly unfounded claims or abusive court proceedings (Strategic lawsuits against public participation - SLAPPs) and Regulation (EU) 2024/1083 establishing a common framework for media services in the internal market and amending Directive 2010/13/EU (the European Media Freedom Act).

European Parliament position

Parliament has called consistently for action to ensure respect for and enhancement of EU fundamental values, as enshrined in Article 2 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU).

In 2018, a Parliament resolution highlighted how journalists were still the target of deadly attacks, and recalled the importance of ensuring media freedom and pluralism. Parliament noted the recent political developments in various Member States that had led to increased pressure on and threats against journalists. Member States were urged to set up an independent and impartial regulatory body to report violence and threats against journalists and to ensure the protection and safety of journalists at national level. The same year, another resolution focused on the case of two murdered Slovak journalists, Ján Kuciak and Martina Kušnírová. In 2019, the situation of journalists in Malta and Slovakia was on Parliament's radar, with another resolution following the revelations concerning the murder of Daphne Caruana Galizia.

A 2020 resolution and a 2021 resolution stressed again how journalists, and in particular investigative journalists, are increasingly victims of hatred and violence, with perpetrators' sole aim that of preventing public scrutiny and accountability. In June 2021, Parliament expressed, once again, its concerns regarding the erosion of media freedom and referred to 'smear campaigns against academics, journalists, judges, legal professionals, civil society organisations and activists' with the purpose of limiting their independence. In November 2021, Parliament called firmly for legislative action to address the undue use of actions under civil and criminal law to silence journalists, non-governmental organisations and civil society.

In April 2022, Parliament launched a scholarship scheme and training programmes for young journalists to strengthen independent, professional and responsible journalism and deepen journalists' understanding of EU affairs.

In a September 2022 resolution, Parliament pointed to the fact that online harassment, threats and lawsuits against journalists were increasing in some Member States. Parliament reiterated its concern at the deterioration of media freedom in Hungary, Poland and Slovenia. In July 2023, Parliament adopted a resolution calling for action to better protect journalists around the world, inside and outside armed conflict zones. Parliament stressed the crucial mission of journalists in gathering and disseminating reliable information about armed conflicts, and underlined the importance of securing journalists safe access to countries or specific areas in which conflicts or dire human rights abuses are taking place. In October 2023, Parliament again stressed the importance of ensuring the safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in democratic societies.